specific: Dictionary Information

Specific —adj. 1 clearly defined (a specific purpose). 2 relating to a particular subject; peculiar. 3 exact, giving full details (was specific about his wishes). 4 archaic (of medicine etc.) Having a distinct effect in curing a certain disease. —n. 1 archaic specific medicine or remedy. 2 specific aspect or factor (discussed specifics; from the general to the specific).  specifically adv. specificity n. [latin: related to -species]

Specific gravity n. = -relative density.

Specific heat capacity n. Heat required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a given substance by a given amount (usu. One degree).

specific: Geographic Locations

specific: Historical Excerpts

you can refer to the unit on 1 400j 500. The paragraph summaries heading the pages there, and the comments on the map page, outline signific,ant trends of the period for you, indicate cross-links between contemporar) events, and emphasize the forces and interrelationships that gave the period its historical configuration. In world history few specific dates. have universal significance. The chronological units of this Guide disregard the conventional periodization: ancient, medieval, and modern, traditional in European annals, and set their limiLs by cchturics or fractions of centuries. As the stream of history broadens, the periods contract to allow modern and recent developments the more detailed attention they merit. jEach unit, consists of. twelve pages and each follows the same pattern in the arrangement and classificarion of its subject matter. Tins synoptic presentation makes it eas)for a reader to compare conditions on all continents at the same period or to pursue the history of a single region or subject tlirough the centuries.





INDIA. The history of the Indian peninsula is a maze and its chronology is in dispute for the early millenniums. By c2000 BC the Indus Valley civilization had apparently declined or been overrun by Aryan invaders. The darkskinned Dravidian peoples of India were pushed southward by these conquering Aryans who entered India from the northwest. By cl 000 they had extended their zone of occupation from the Indus River to the Ganges. The army of Alexander the Great reached and crossed the Indus, and traces of hellenistic influence subsequently affected Indian art. In general, however, Indian civilization evolved its own patterns, though events there can be more specifically dated through Greek contacts. chandragupta and his successors of the Mauiya dynasty repelled further Greek attempts at invasion, and expanded their empire. Under Asoka the Great it induded almost all India, afghanistan, and baludiistan, but this first attempt at Indian unification collapsed after 185. Brahmanism, the religion of the Aryan invaders of India, hardened into a caste system by c500. Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha (c563c483), competed with Brahmanism and spread rapidly.





Middle East al-Biruni. Great Moslem mathematician, astronomer, geographer, encyclopedist; profound, original thinker; astronomical encyclopedia, cl013; with Omar Khayyam, improved calendar and historical chronology: made studies of lever, pulley, specific gravity, triangle of forces; Biruni first medieval scholar to measure latitude and longitude accurately: explained geographical phenomena according to laws of mathematics and physics; discussed earth’s rotation on its axis; extremely influential. Avicenna (ibn-Sina). outstanding philosopher-scientist, mathematician, physician, astronomer, physicist; compiled The Canon, medical encyclopedia, based on works of Galen, hippocrates, and Moslem doctors; translated by Gerard of Cremona; adopted by European schools as standard text. al-Hazen (ibn-al-Haitham). Foremost Moslem physicist; mathematician, astronomer; famed for work in optics; studied Euclid and Ptolemy but went far beyond them; worked with spherical and parabolic mirrors; extended knowledge of lenses; translation of al-Hazen s works aided Bacon; observations in astronomy advanced sdence of navigation and map-making; developed nautical almanacs: improved quadrant, dials,, globes. Omar Khayyam. Persian mathematician, astronomer, poet; reformed calendar; author of important treatise on algebra; included classification of equations; considered a leading scientist of age. Idrisi (Abu Abdullah Muhammed) outstanding medieval geographer; traveled extensively; compiled description of inhabited world’ based on own observation; constructed silver celestial globe; divided earth into 7 parallel climate zones; one of first to realize significance of earth as sphere. al-Kafhi. Author of Essence of the Art and Aid to Workers, Ids !, compilation of available knowledge of alchemy.





ENGLAND. Linacre, Thomas (or Lynaker). Humanist, physician; studied at Padua; physician to Henry VIII; translated many Aristotle and Galen works; founded readerships in medicine at Oxford and Cambridge; founder, first president of Royal College of PhyMcians, 1518. SPAIN. Servefus, Michael (Miguel Serveto). Physician, theologian; worked on edition of ptolemy’s geography and other scientific works; able dissections; discovered that some of the blood circulates between heart and lungs, anticipating Harvey s work in next century: burned for heresy by Calvinists; important free thinker. Vives, Juan Luis. 1492-1540. Am thor, one of first modem works on psychology, De anima et vita, (On the Soul and Life) 1538. PORTUGAL. Nunes, Pedro. Mathematician; rvrote on navigation and geometry; invented device (the nonius) for graduating instruments. FRANCE. Estienne, Charles. Physician, scholar, printer; published De disseclione partium corporis humani libri (res, 1545; outstanding book on dissection and anatomy with excellent woodcuts; first anatomist, after Leonardo, to prepare figures illustrating complete systems (arterial, nervous, venous); discovered structure in veins (later known to be valves); influenced Harvey. Par6, Ambroise. Surgeon; known for advancement of humane methods in medicine, reintroduced ligature in amputations, abandoned boiling oil treatment of wounds, promoted use of artificial limbs; introduced podalic version in childbirth; called father of modern surgery’; book on methods, 1545. SWITZERLAND. Paracelsus, Philippus (T. B. von Hohenheim) german-swiss physician, chemist; introduced new medicines using opium, mercury, sulphur, iron, arseniq important in opposing scholasticism in science and medicine and relying on experience and observation: specific remedy for each disease; first to consider human body as primarily chemical combination.





mercantilism developed with ^owth of nationalism and further appearance in Europe of dynasUc national states. The increase in supply of precious metals from exploration, conquest, and European mining developments tended to reduce purchasing power of specific amounts of gold or silver, and resulted in a price revolution. Wages and prices rose rapidly. Foreign trade became state-regulated and protective tariffs increased; Economic theorists postulated ideas of importance. Hales, 1581, explained all economic activity on basis of individual self-interest; Bodin, 1588, advanced quantity theory of money, that prices are largely determined by quantity of money available; Gresham, 1571, known for Gresham s Law, to the effect that depreciated money tends to drive sound money out of circulation.





Western Europe PRANCE. The second half of the 17th century (or to be more specific the period 1661-1715) was the Age of Louis XIV. France enjoyed a political, military, and cultural ascendancy and Europe lived in apprehension of what the Sun King at Versailles might do. What he did do was to wield the scepter of an absolute monarch with regal assurance, preside majestically over a brilliant but sycophantic court, and intimidate his neighbors by a succession of wars recklessly pursued in the belief that they would add to his glory. The admiration accorded French literature, art, and architecture during the reign of the Grand Monarque was fully merited. The cultural primacy renaissance Italy displayed in the 15th century, the wealth and grandeur Spain achieved in the 16th, passed to France in the 17th. With some seventeen million inhabitants, France held one-fifth the population of Europe and was a superpower among powers. Firmly (though ponderously) governed by a hardworking king, who was served by able ministers (Colbert, Louvois) and renowned commanders (Cond^, Turenne, Vauban), France threatened to dominate Europe. neighboring governments reacted by forming coalitions to resist the French threat, and Louis’ reign was marred by four destructive wars, each longer, costlier, and more extensive than the one before. Louis was personally responsible for the most critical decisions of his reign. From 1661, when Mazarin died, he presided in person over the royal councils, setting Europe an example of complacent royal absolutism which lesser monarchs tried to imitate. To provide a fitting stage, Louis had magnificent and costly palace and ark constructed at Versailles. To :eep the French nobles subservient he summoned them to court and rewarded them with light duties and V large incomes. The real power he kept to, himself or delegated to sub





to or had not been domesticated by tire Indians. The turkey, native to Nortlr.America, soon appeared in Europe. But the few animals tlie Indians had domesticated (llama, alpaca) were not adopted. New medicines also made their appearance, some of them specifics of unique V’alue. Cinchona bark (containing quinine) had long been used by the Peruvians to curb malaria. Rhubarb, camphor, and opium came





ENGLAND. Cavendish, Henry. Chemist; first to recognize tme nature of hydrogen; discovered water results from union of hydrogen and oxygen; composition of nitric acid; anticipated researcli in electricity of Coulomb and Faraday; used ‘inch of electricity’ as unit of measurement; devised experiment for measuring density of the e-irdi, 1798. Hcrschel, Friedrich (Sir William). Astronomer; discovered planet Uranus, 1781; laid foundations of modern physical astronomy; determined a motion of the solar system as a whole toward a point in constellation Hercules; catalogued 800 double stars and more than 2,000 nebulae; founder of sidereal science. Black, Joseph. Scottish cliemist, physician; knotvn for theories of latent heat, specific heat; discovered fixed air’ (carbon dioxide). Hutton, James. Scottish geologist; fundamental idea that past can be explained by present; A Theory of Earth, 1785, turning point in geology. Priestley, Joseph. Chemist; father of pneumatic cliemistry; discovered ’dcpidogisticated air,’ later named oxygen by Lavoisier, 1774; discovered nitric oxide, and decomposition of ammonia by electricity, 1781. Romford, Count Benjamin Thompson. american-british scientist known for heat theory based on movement of particles; a founder. Royal Institute. Hunter, John. Scottish anatomist, surgeon; pioneer, comparative anatomy and morphology; introduced new surgical techniques, including ligature. Jenner, Edward. Physician; inoculation against smallpox; promoted new science of preventive medicine. Watt, James. 1736-1819. Scottish meclianical engineer, inventor; knoxvn for improvements on steam engine; invented modern condensing steam engine, 1765. Edwards, George. 1693-1773. Father of ornithology; History of Birds, 1743-51.





Central Europe GERMANY. Helmholtz, Hermann. Versatile scientist; extended application of law of conservation of energy, and formulated it mathematically, 1847; henceforth, energyconsidered constant and indestructible; thermodynamics and electrodynamics; pioneer in physiological optics. Ohm, Georg. Physicist; established quantitative relation between electric current and electromotive force in same conductor, 1827: ohm, practical unit of electrical resistance. Schleiden, Matthias. Botanist; pioneer in development of cell theory; photogenesis, plant tissues composed of cells, 1838; importance of nucleus. Muller, Johannes. Founder of scliool of mechanistic physiology; study of nert ous system; founder of scientific medicine in Germany; law of specific nerve energies,’ 1826. Hofmeister, Wilhelm. 1824-77. Botanist: demonstrated alternation of generations in flowering plants. Virchow, Rudolph. 1821-1902. Pathologist; founder of cellular pathology; versatile. AUSTRIA. Doppler, Christian. 180353. mathematician, physicist; Doppler s principle, measuring motion of stars, important in astronomy; formulated, 1842. BELGIUM. Quetelet, Adolphe. statistician, astronomer; one of first to apply mathematical statistics to social study of man (sociology): most important work, A Treatise on Man, 1835. DENMARK. Steenstrup, Johann. ardiaelogist, geologist; important work. On the alternation of generations, 1841. SWEDEN. Berzelius Jons. Chemist; developed modern system of lettersymbols, formulas in chemistry; analyzed numerous chemical compounds; recognized effect named catalysis; prepared highly accurate table of atomic weights. SWITZERLAND. Naegeli, Karl. 181791. Botanist, Memoir on the Nuclei, 1844^6, studies of cells, making distinction between nuclear material and protoplasm.





Central and Eastern Europe AUSTRIA. Mendel, Gregor. Botanist; noted for experimental rvork on heredity: Mendel’s Laws created science of genetics; stated sepaimte clraracteristics are inherited independently of one another. GERMANY. Weber, Ernst. Physiologist; known for obsen’ations on limits of sensations which led to present science of experimental psyclrology. Kekule von Sfradonitz, Friedrich. Organic chemist; known for benzene ring theory of molecular structure, fundamental in modern chemistry, 1865. Clausius, Rudolf. mathematical physicist; known for work in science of thermodynamics; introduced concept entropy. Sprengel, Hermann. Chemist, physicist; invented pump important in development of X-ray tubes; U tube used to determine specific gravity and thermal coefficient of expansion. Bunsen, Robert. Known for invention of Bunsen burner, 1855, used in laboratories; Bunsen electric cell. Riemann, Georg. Mathematician; work on theory of functions of complex variables; Riemannian geometry, representing elliptic space, non-Euclidian. NETHERLANDS. Van f Hoff, Jacobus H. Physical chemist; received first Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1901, for work in chemical dynamics and osmotic electrical conductivity; studies in molecular structure laid foundation for stereochemistry; Chemistry of Space, 1875. HUNGARY. Semmelwels, Ignaz. 1818-65. Physician; pioneer in antiseptic methods in obstetrics. RUSSIA. Mendeleyev, Dmitri. Chemist; connection between atomic weights -and physical and chemical properties stated in concept of periodic law of classification of elements, using valence as fundamental cliaracteristic; predicted properties of unknown elements in tables. SWEDEN. Nobel, Alfred. Chemist; inventor of dynamite, 1866; bequeathed funds for Nobd Prizes.





United States Einstein, Albert. Great germanamerican theoretical physicist; famous for tlieory of relativity, 1905 (completed 1916); suggested matter and energy might prove to be equivalent; proposed now famed formula, E = mc2; Nobel Prize for photoelectric tlieory, 1921; unified field theory, 1929-50; developed ‘quantum tlieory’ of specific heat. Millikan, Robert. Physicist, educator; Nobel Prize, 1923, for measurement of charge of electron and for work on photoelectric effect; studies of cosmic rays. Tesla, Nikola. Pioneer in field of high-tension electricity; inventor. Steinmetz, Charles. Discovered law of hysteresis; practical method of making calculations of alternating currents; built generator that produced artificial lightning; engineer. Richards, Theodore. Chemist; Nobel Prize for work in determining atomic weights of elements, 1914; compressibility of atoms. Langmuir, Irving. 1881-1957. Theory of atomic structure; atomic-hydrogen welding; contributed to development of radio vacuum tube; Nobel Prize, 1932, surface tension. Miller, Dayton. 1866-1941. Physicist; studied measurements of sound, light; successfully photographed and projected sound waves. Morgan, Thomas H. 1866-1945. Zoologist; performed notable experiments with fruit flies (genus drosophila), showing inherited characteristics linked and carried from generation to generation through the chromosomes; Nobel Prize, 1933. Funk, Casimir. 1884Biochemist; considered discoverer of vitamins. De Forest, lee. 1873Pioneer in development of wireless telegraphy, sound pictures, television; first highpowered naval radio stations; called ‘father of radio’; over 300 patents. Boas, Franz. 1858-1942. Notable anthropologist; influential. Novy, Frederick. 1864-1957. Bacteriologist; important public health stations; one of first to demonstrate an anaphylotox in (later histamine).